| 1. | |
Metabolism: Basic Concepts | It enable us to now ask questions fundamental to biochemistry: 1.How does a cell extract energy and reducing power from its environment? 2.How does a cell synthesize the building blocks of its macromolecules and then the macromolecules themselves? |  |
| 2. | |
Carbohydrates | Carbohydrates serve as a biologic fuel and are important in maintaining the structure and functional integrity of an organism. An emphasis will be placed on the importance of these macronutrients in sustaining physiologic function during physical activity. | |
| 3. | |
Glycolysis | Glycolysis is a determined sequence of ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions. The intermediates provide entry points to glycolysis. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of cells and is essentially an anaerobic process since the pathway’s principle steps do not require oxygen. | |
| 4. | |
Accessing Glycogen Stores | Glycogen is the storage polysaccharide of animals. It is present in all cells, but it is most prevalent in the liver and the muscles. | |
| 5. | |
Pyruvate Dehydrogenase and the Citric Acid Cycle | The citric acid cycle – also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle), or the Krebs cycle, is a series of chemical reactions used by all aerobic organisms to generate energy through the oxidation of acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats and proteins into carbon dioxide and chemical energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). | |
| 6. | |
Oxidative Phosphorylation/Electron Transport | Oxidative phosphorylation (or OXPHOS in short) is the metabolic pathway in which the mitochondria in cells use their structure, enzymes, and energy released by the oxidation of nutrients to reform ATP. | |
| 7. | |
Oxidative Phosphorylation/Proton Motive Force | An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of compounds that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane. | |
| 8. | |
Glycogen Synthesis | Stores of readily available glucose to supply the tissues with an oxidizable energy source are found principally in the liver, as glycogen. Glycogen is a polymer of glucose residues linked by α-(1,4)- and α-(1,6)-glycosidic bonds. A second major source of stored glucose is the glycogen of skeletal muscle. However, muscle glycogen is not generally available to other tissues, because muscle lacks the enzyme glucose-6-phosphatase. | |
| 9. | |
Lipids: Fatty Acids, Membrane Lipids | Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats, waxes, sterols, fat-soluble vitamins (such as vitamins A, D, E, and K), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, phospholipids, and others. The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy, signaling, and acting as structural components of cell membranes. | |
| 10. | |
Fat Mobilization | Mobilization of fatty acids from triglyceride stores in adipose tissue requires lipolytic enzymes. Dysfunctional lipolysis affects energy homeostasis and may contribute to the pathogenesis of obesity and insulin resistance. Until now, hormone-sensitive lipase (HSL) was the only enzyme known to hydrolyze triglycerides in mammalian adipose tissue. | |
| 11. | |
Gluconeogenesis | Gluconeogenesis (GNG) is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. While primarily odd-chain fatty acids can be converted into glucose, it is possible for at least some even-chain fatty acids. | |
| 12. | |
Fatty Acid and Triacylglycerol Synthesis | Fatty acid synthesis is the creation of fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA precursors through action of enzymes called fatty acid synthases. It is an important part of the lipogenesis process, which – together with glycolysis – functions to create fats from blood sugar in living organisms. | |
| 13. | |
Cholesterol Synthesis | Synthesis within the body starts with one molecule of acetyl CoA and one molecule of acetoacetyl-CoA, which are hydrated to form 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl CoA (HMG-CoA). This molecule is then reduced to mevalonate by the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase. This is the regulated, rate-limiting and irreversible step in cholesterol synthesis and is the site of action for the statin drugs (HMG-CoA reductase competitive inhibitors). | |
| 14. | |
Amino Acid Synthesis | Amino acid synthesis is the set of biochemical processes (metabolic pathways) by which the various amino acids are produced from other compounds. The substrates for these processes are various compounds in the organism's diet or growth media. | |
| 15. | |
Amino Acid Degradation | Amino acids are valuable metabolic fuels, providing a supply of both nitrogen and carbon for intermediary metabolism and energy for growth. Controlled degradation of amino acids is important in the maintenance of the carbon–nitrogen balance. | |
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